What is Dark Matter?

In astrophysics and physical cosmology is called dark matter to hypothetical matter, which does not emit enough electromagnetic radiation to be detected with the current technical means, but whose existence can be inferred from the effects gravitational it causes in visible matter, as well as in the anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background present in the universe. This work responds to each of the known characteristics of dark matter, based on matter and physics known.

To respond to the dark matter, we must first understand how originated the matter in the universe, the explanation most accepted is the known as the big bang, this explains that the entire universe and matter come from a singularity infinitely dense and mathematically paradoxical, when you questions that is a singularity infinitely dense, the answer for singularity, is a place where the laws of nature (physics, chemistry and mathematics) do not exist or are not valid, then questions that is a paradox mathematics, and the response of paradox mathematics; is a mathematical operation that seems to be very difficult, but their results is wrong. As we all know, matter is neither created nor destroyed, it only transforms, knowing that plasma matter filled the universe in its principles, we can say that today it still full of the same plasma but transformed into a crystallized gas, because its atoms are in a solid state, And due the crystals have the entropy of reaching temperatures of zero K, where their atoms do not emit enough radiation to be detected, this matter has gone on to become a phantom matter, known as dark matter.

Author; ROGELIO PEREZ CASADIEGO

The Razor of Ockham, Methodological Principle:

"On Equal Terms, the Simplest Explanation is Usually the Most Likely".

this work proposes that if all matter originated from a plasma, then dark matter must be by logic also plasma, or originated from plasma, although dark matter has some characteristic, this work shows that plasma in the solid phase ( crystalline), has the known characteristics of dark matter.

1-    Characteristics of the Dark Matter, “Invisible”.

According to this work, for this plasma to be invisible, it should have evolved or changed state, thermodynamic physics teaches us, that any substance that changes temperature or pressure conditions, can evolve between several aggregation states, without that to happen a change in its composition. We know that this kind of conditions were in the universe while expanding and cooled, so this plasma according to thermodynamic physics, had to change state. Plasma is composed mainly of ions, so this plasma must have evolved, first to an ion gas, and then to the state of ion crystals, the crystals by their known characteristics, it is very difficult to observe with astronomical instruments today.

2- Gravitational Effects.

The main effect of dark matter, which is allowing science (so to speak) to see it, is the gravitational lens effect. The gravitational lens effect was established in science as truth in the year of 1919, with the experiment confirming the theory of relativity, scientists with telescopes on earth, took pictures of certain stars at night, when the sun and its heat were out there, and the water crystals filled the night atmosphere, then waited for an eclipse of the sun, to take pictures of them stars, when the sun and its heat was in the middle of the sky, and the water crystals did not fill the atmosphere because of the sun and its heat, and the differences found in the positions of the stars in the photographs day and night, confirmed the theory of relativity, by which the gravitational lens effect is known, but the strawberry that adorns the dessert of this gravitational lens effect, was that Dr. Albert Einstein, used the mathematics of optics (mathematics of the lens effect by crystals) to calculate the effect lens by gravity seen in the photographs, in other words, the gravitational lens effect, and lens effect by crystals, although they are identical mathematically and when observed, their difference is in the way of explaining the phenomenon, when it happens on earth is attributed to the lens effect by crystals, but when is in space attributed to gravity.

3- Does not emit enough electromagnetic radiation to be detected.

I think that the most difficult features to explain, which induced the scientific community, to seek the answers to dark matter outside the known particles, is the little or no emission of radiation from this matter, but since this work says that dark matter are ionic crystals, and one of the characteristics of crystals, is its entropy to reach temperatures close to absolute zero, where electromagnetic radiation is not emitted by matter. In other words, the entropy of crystals in space allows it to emit so low radiation, that they cannot be detected.

4- The anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background.

As this work says that dark matter are crystals, and one of the characteristics of crystals is their anisotropy. 
Anisotropy is the opposite of isotropy, and this is the general property of matter, and the anisotropy observed at the cosmic bottom of microwaves is strong evidence of a molecular order (matter), ordered in crystals.

Of the microwaves in the cosmic background, we can know that they are the traces of primitive plasma, and the anisotropy of the cosmic background, we can see the traces of a matter ordered in crystals, which is the evolution or change of natural phase, from the primal plasma to solid ionic or crystals.

To conclude this explanation of dark matter made of ionic crystals, based on thermodynamic phase changes, for plasma matter, science has found the first direct evidence that white dwarf stars, dense bodies and stars like our sun, can crystallize or turn from a liquid into a solid.

Introduction;

This work presents a hypothetical response to one of the greatest mysteries in astrophysics and in physical cosmology called dark matter, which does not emit enough electromagnetic radiation to be detected with the current technical means

In 1933 Fritz by Zwicky was the first to suggest the presence of invisible matter in the galaxies, following their observations in the Mount Wilson Observatory seven of them in the Coma cluster, but hardly convince his colleagues about the importance of his discovery, which will be forgotten by almost forty years.[i]

In astrophysics and cosmology physics is called dark matter to the hypothetical matter that does not emit enough electromagnetic radiation to be detected with current technical means, but whose existence can be deduced from the gravitational effects it causes in visible matter, such as the stars or galaxies, as well as in the anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background present in the universe.[ii]

The super symmetry as response;

The dark matter is a matter that has never been seen, that scientists know that exists on the gravitational effects in the visible matter. And in that search the scientists were raised the possibility that there is another kind of matter, whose particles were beyond the standard model known, based on the existence of an invisible matter, studied the particles of the standard model and found an anomaly in the standard model, in a particle known as "quark beauty", then to explain this anomaly emerged an explanation of new particles known as super symmetry, "Susy" which explains that every fundamental particle has a super partner, proving that the lightest of the group of particles theorized (not discovered), could have the properties hypothetical dark matter, known as particle super symmetry, “WIMP”.[iii]

Many were the experiments to try to prove the particles super symmetry, and mainly the particle WIMP, on the part of the scientific community as the laboratories of snolab, the Sasso, jinpinp in china etc, but still have not found anything.

Then if we can say is that in the Large colisionador of adrones of Europe (LHC), it showed the results of the study of the anomaly of the fundamental particle “quark beauty”, of whose anomaly causes the new physics or supersymmetry, showing as results that this anomaly does not exist, and that the particle "quark beauty", behaves as predicted in the standard model.[iv]

Statement of Theory and Definitions.

According to the big bang theory the universe was a hot plasma, and as the universe expanded this was cooled, but this cooling was called adiabatic, which would mean that the cooling was due to a change in phase, and between 300,000 and 800,000 the plasma that filled the universe, plasma change to gas, both that light could not escape, this is called "dark age". After took place a mysterious process, the gas became transparent.[v]

Stars like our sun can turn into crystals in the final stages of their lives, bringing a whole new meaning to those glittering jewels in the sky. Astronomers from the University of Warwick say they’ve found the first direct evidence that white dwarf stars – the dense, stellar corpses of stars like our sun – can crystallize, or turn from a liquid into a solid. The discovery was published Wednesday in the journal Nature.[vi]

The ionic crystals

The positive and negative ions are supported in the crystalline network by electrostatic attractions. Because the forces are strong, the substances ionic have high melting points. The ionic crystals are hard and fragile. Due to the movement of a plane of ions on other, the ions with the same load are repelled mutually. The crystal breaks in pieces, these are good electricity drivers when they are melted or in solution (Mortimer, 1983).

The anisotropy of the material is most pronounced in the crystalline solids, due to its atomic structure and molecular regulate.[vii]

The crystalline state of matter is the higher-order, that is, the one where the internal correlations are greater and greater range of distances. And this is reflected in their properties that are anisotropicas and discontinuous. Tend to appear as pure entities, homogeneous and with defined geometric shapes when they are well trained.[viii]

The crystals are distinguished from amorphous solids, not only by its regular geometry, but also by the anisotropy of their properties (they are not the same in all directions) and by the existence of elements of symmetry.[ix]

The refractive index of the air (Vv/V) to the pressure level of the sea is 1.00029 indicating that the speed of light in air is weakly less than its speed in a vacuum. Normally this value is set equal to 1 and all of the values of indices of refraction of the crystals will be higher than this value as the light diminishes its speed when entering them. Most of the mineral crystals have refractive indices between 1.32 and 2.40[x]

The relationship between the incident Ray and the refracted Ray paths were determined by Snell's law (1621): being ni and nr the indices of refraction of each medium and sen i and sen r sinuses of the angles of incidence and refraction with the normal.

As well, the trajectory of light during this process of refraction caused by change of means (e.g. , air/crystal) is determined by the Law of Snell, with ni = 1 (air): nr = sen i / sen r.[xi]

The crystals can also be studied by x-ray diffraction; x-ray diffraction is the physical phenomenon which manifests the fundamental interaction of the x-ray radiation with crystals (the orderly matter). However, to be able to describe the phenomenon, it is recommended that you previously some physical models that, like all the models, they do not explain fully the reality, they are an idealization of the same, but we serve to understand the phenomenon.[xii]

The crystals are formed in the atmosphere, when the hot air that contains water vapor rises. The temperature of the atmosphere decreases an average of 0.6 °C per 100 m. Upon arrival in colder areas the water vapor condenses to form clouds (of water droplets or ice crystals)[xiii]

Halos can be seen all the year round from the tropics to the poles. Ice crystals in cirrus clouds produce them. The clouds are 3 - 6 miles (5 to 10 km) high and are always cold regardless of their location. Halos are the collective glints of millions of crystals. Regardless of their overall proportions, all ice crystals have identical interfacial angles.  It is this constancy which gives regular and predictable halos.[xiv]

According to quantum mechanics, a material will be transparent to certain wavelength when in his scheme of energy levels there is no difference of energy that corresponds to that wavelength. Well, the air and the glass is transparent, because in their schemes of energy levels (or bands of energy, respectively) there is no difference in energy of the order of the visible light.[xv]

What is the anisotropy? (Opposite of isotropy) is the general property of matter according to which qualities as: elasticity, temperature, conductivity, speed of propagation of the light, etc., vary depending on the direction in which they are examined. Something anisotropic may present different characteristics depending on the direction. The anisotropy of the material is most pronounced in the crystalline solids, due to its atomic structure and molecular regular.[xvi]

Who introduced the concept of gravitational lens in science?

It was Albert Einstein who introduced in his general theory of relativity in the year 1915, the concept of gravitational lens. It describes how any object with mass generates gravity and the gravitational field causes a curvature of space-time. Similarly, also in the light of distant stars should be deflected by the Sun. And on May 29, 1919 the astronomer Sir Arthur Eddington decided to carry out expeditions to Brazil and Africa to observe the total eclipse, which dramatically confirmed the general theory of relativity of Albert Einstein. Two British expeditions observed during a solar eclipse, that the sun's gravity curves the light of the stars that are behind, as Einstein predicted. For this reason it seems that are displaced in the sky.[xvii]

How was the process of the experiment in 1919?

The process of observation consisted in take photographs of these star during the totality of the eclipse total of Sun, and then compare them with other plates of the same region, which were taken when the Sun not was in the neighborhood.

The prediction of the general theory of relativity was that the light does not travel in a straight line perfect. When traversing the space-time and closer to its fold, induced by the gravitational field of an object, the light should bend a little.

Explanation of the results of the experiment by the team of Arthur Eddington;

The light of the stars was inclined by the attraction of the sun and the stars on the plates of eclipses seem to be pushed outwards in comparison with the support.

(The Theory of Einstein) ... is of deep philosophical interest. Straight lines in the space of Einstein cannot exist; that are parts of the curves of gigantic.

Explanation of the results on the part of independent experts;

Charles Lane Poor, 1930.  "Really the displacements of the stars in minimal grade do not present the similarities foreseen by Einstein; not neither of the direction, nor of the sizes, nor the grade of its fall with alienation of the Sun".

Poor: “The mathematical formula with which Einstein calculated the flexion of the solar rays interns on the edge of the sun, is a well-known formula of the optical[xviii]

By Brown (1967), in which Eddington based this was in an assessment premature of photographic plates. Initially, stars are not "appear" bent as they should, according was required by Einstein, but then, according to Brown, occurred the unexpected - multiple stars were then observed bending in a transverse direction to the expected direction and other more bending in a direction opposite to that predicts the relativity.[xix]

McCausland (2001) quotes the ex-publisher of the magazine Nature, Sir John Maddox:

"What is not documented so well is that the measurements in 1919 were not very precise".

"Despite the fact that the experimental evidence of relativity seems to have been very weak in 1919, the enormous fame of Einstein has remained intact and its theory since then has been considered one of the greatest achievements of human thought"

The BIPP asked:

"This was the deception of the century?" and exclaimed: "The report of the relativity of Eclipse 1919 of the Royal Society deceived us for 80 years!"

McCausland said that, "In the opinion of the author, the unsuspecting notice of confirmation decisive of the general theory of Einstein in November 1919 was not a triumph of science, as is often portrayed, but that is one of the incidents most unfortunate in the history of science of the century 20".[xx]

The razor of Ockham (sometimes spelled Occam or Ockam), economy or principle of parsimony (lex parsimoniae), is a philosophical and methodological principle attributed to the philosopher, Franciscan friar and Scholastic logic William of Ockham (1280-1349), according to which: "On equal terms, the simplest explanation is usually the most likely".

Presentation of Results.

1.       The name of dark matter is the name that has been designated to everything that astronomers cannot see or detect directly because it does not emit enough electromagnetic radiation to be detected with current technical means.

The behavior of light in a crystal is primarily controlled by the crystal structure, and the main feature of the crystals is its low refractive index of light, which in the ground is between 1.32 and 2.40. But in the vacuum of space this level decreases making them invisible to telescopes on Earth and almost invisible to the located in the space, and that you have to add the great distances of space.

The business of mapmaking is complicated when the stuff being mapped is invisible and millions of light years away. To spot dark matter, astrophysicists must pick out distortions - caused by dark matter's gravitational "lensing" of passing light - within very accurate images.

The distortions are much smaller than the warping of light by our own atmosphere, and even the irregularities added by the telescope itself. So those quantities first have to be subtracted.

"Most of the hard work goes into trying to remove those effects, to be able to uncover the gravitational lensing effect underneath,"Prof Bridle said.[xxi]

Can plasma change of state?

Any substance or mixture, modifying their conditions of temperature or pressure can be obtained different states or phases, called states of aggregation of matter, in relation to the forces of union of the particles (molecules, atoms or ions) that constitute it.

In physics and chemistry is called status change to the evolution of substance between several states of aggregation without entailing a change in its composition. The three states most studied and common on Earth are the solid, liquid and gas; however, the state of aggregation more common in the universe is the plasma, material of which they are composed the stars (if the dark matter is discarded).

Deionization: it is the change of plasma to a gas, but plasma when it has evolved into gas, is said to be it an ionic gas. Reverse sublimation; i.e. the direct passage of the State from gas to solid state. But when an ionic gas evolves into a solid, they are called Ionic solid, and an ionic solid is a crystal.

2.       The feature of the dark matter is the gravitational effects it causes in visible matter, and its main effect qualified of gravitational lens is the best way of the study of dark matter.But the water crystals can also same this effect.

Water crystals are formed in the atmosphere, when the hot air that contains water vapor rises. The temperature of the atmosphere decreases an average of 0.6 °C per 100 m. Upon arrival in colder areas the water vapor condenses to form clouds (of water droplets or ice crystals).The which diffract the light, producing the optical phenomena similar to those of the gravity of the theory of the relativity.

3- Does not emit enough electromagnetic radiation to be detected.

I think that the most difficult features to explain, which induced the scientific community, to seek the answers to dark matter outside the known particles, is the little or no emission of radiation from this matter, but since this work says that dark matter are ionic crystals, and one of the characteristics of crystals, is its entropy to reach temperatures close to absolute zero, where electromagnetic radiation is not emitted by matter. In other words, the entropy of crystals in space allows it to emit so low radiation, that they cannot be detected.

4- The anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background.

As this work says that dark matter are crystals, and one of the characteristics of crystals is their anisotropy. Anisotropy is the opposite of isotropy, and this is the general property of matter, and the anisotropy observed at the cosmic bottom of microwaves is strong evidence of a molecular order (matter), ordered in crystals.Another way to infer the existence of dark matter also we can see in the anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background present in the universe.

The crystalline state of matter is the higher-order, that is, the one where the internal correlations are greater and greater range of distances. And this is reflected in their properties that are anisotropy and discontinuous.

For this reason, the anisotropy of the material is most pronounced in the crystalline solids, due to its atomic structure and molecular regular.

Of the microwaves in the cosmic background, we can know that they are the traces of primal plasma, and the anisotropy of the cosmic background, we can see the traces of a matter ordered in crystals, which is the evolution or change of natural phase, from the primal plasma to solid ionic or crystals.

Conclusion;

We conclude that the plasma that filled the universe did not disappear, but that it was transformed into a solid phase, then the universe is full of crystallized ionic atoms, and with the phase change of the plasma (transformation of matter), can be explained because, the universe became transparent, also explain the matter that does not emit radiation, known as dark matter, and as this matter fills the universe, we can also say that the cold of outer space if it exists, and it is originated by the cold and frozen gas (crystallized plasma) in what became the hot gas (plasma) that filled the universe.

We can say that the known characteristics of dark matter; The invisibility to the technical means used by scientists, the effect of the gravitational lens, and the anisotropy on the cosmic microwave background of the universe, can all be explained perfectly, with the natural characteristics of crystals.

Also the experiment that was applied to verify the effects of light by gravity, the way the measurements were made, having the atmosphere full of crystals in the cold of the night, producing the same effects, and the mathematical formula of phenomena optical used to process Gravity Date, leads me to the final conclusion, that the gravitational lens effect relationship with the effects of lens by crystals, is not a coincidence of nature, but a double explanation of the same optical effect produced by crystals .

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[i] http://fcaglp.unlp.edu.ar/~scellone/Divul/MatOsc/MatOsc.html

[ii] http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materia_oscura

[iii] http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/article/july-2015/miraculous-wimps

[iv] http://phys.org/news/2015-07-supersymmetry-physics-theory.html#jCp

[v] https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang

[vi] http://www.astronomy.com/news/2019/01/stars-like-our-sun-turn-into-crystals-in-their-final-stages

[vii] http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisotrop%C3%ADa

[viii] http://www.xtal.iqfr.csic.es/Cristalografia/

[ix] http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristal

[x] http://www.uned.es/cristamine/crist_opt/cropt_luz_crist.htm#Ley de Snell

[xi] http://www.uned.es/cristamine/crist_opt/cropt_luz_crist.htm#Ley de Snell

[xii] http://www.xtal.iqfr.csic.es/Cristalografia/

[xiii] http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humedad

[xiv] http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/crhal.htm

[xv] http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparencia

[xvi] http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisotrop%C3%ADa

[xvii] http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2009/05/29/ciencias/a02n1cie

[xviii] The deflection of light as observed at total solar eclipses Authors: Poor, Charles Lane Publication: Journal of the Optical Society of America, vol. 2, issue 4, p.173 Publication Date: 04/1930 Origin:

[xix] Brown, G. Burniston (1967), "¿Qué pasa con la relatividad?", Boletín del Instituto de Física y Sociedad de la Física, Págs. 71-77.

G. Burniston Brown, What is wrong with relativity?, Bulletin of the Institute of Physics and Physical Society, pag. 71-77, 1967.

[xx] Maddox, J. (1995), "Flexiones más Precisos de la Luz Solar ", Revista Nature 377:11.. J. Maddox, More Precise Solarlimb Light-bending, 1995.

[xxi] https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-32284995